In November 1918, after fifty-two months of bloodshed, the most destructive
war in history comes to an end. Unrest among sailors in the German High Seas Fleet grows into a
fleet-wide mutiny, and then into a full-fledged revolution. On the Italian Front, the dissolution of the Austria-Hungarian Empire leads to a military collapse and then to an armistice. The new nations of Austria
and Czechoslovakia are proclaimed republics. On the Western Front the
American Army’s Meuse-Argonne offensive reaches Sedan. Germany
is declared a republic.
Kaiser Wilhelm abdicates and flees to Holland. In a railway car in the Forest
of Compiegne, Allied and
German representatives agree on the terms of an armistice, bringing fighting on the Western Front to an end. Germany surrenders its U-boats and its High Seas Fleet to Great Britain. The German Army in East Africa surrenders. Belgian King Albert and Queen Elisabeth make
a triumphal reentry into Brussels. Americans elect a Republican Congress. President Wilson announces he will
personally lead the American Peace Commission to Paris and names the commissioners who will
accompany him, a list that includes no prominent Republicans and no senators. Alfred E. Smith is elected governor of New York. The worst accident in the history of the New York City Subway takes 93 lives.
Admiral Hipper's dispersal of the High Seas Fleet's Dreadnoughts after the aborted “death ride” against the Royal Navy failed to put an end to the unrest among the German sailors. A mutiny by sailors aboard Dreadnoughts remaining at Wilhelmshaven was put down and the mutineers arrested. When the ships transiting the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal arrived at Kiel with many of their sailors imprisoned, thousands of their fellow crewmen took to the streets to demonstrate support and demand the prisoners' release. Workers' and Sailors' Councils were formed and took control of the port on November 4. The mutiny spread to Wilhelmshaven, where more Workers' and Sailors' Councils were formed and thousands of armed sailors marched in the streets. As word of the uprising spread, demonstrations and strikes broke out in Hamburg, Bremen, and other major cities including Berlin. On November 9, when crewmen aboard Admiral Hipper's flagship lowered the admiral's flag and hoisted the red flag of revolution, the admiral quietly assembled his gear and went ashore. In Kiel, the Kaiser's brother Prince Henry of Prussia, the Commander-in-Chief of the German Navy, fled the city in an automobile flying a red flag.
By the end of October, with the proclamations of independence by the constituent parts of the Empire and Emperor Karl's announcement that he was relinquishing power to direct state affairs, the Austro-Hungarian army units in Italy were no longer a factor and the Empire itself had effectively ceased to exist. On November 3 Austria-Hungary's participation in the war came to an official end with an armistice signed at Villa Giusti, near Padua.
As the diplomatic notes between the United States and Germany approached agreement on the framework for an armistice, Allied military commanders met at Senlis and agreed on a recommendation to negotiate a ceasefire under conditions strong enough to prevent Germany from renewing hostilities. General Pershing took a different view, arguing that the German Army was in no condition to continue the war and that only unconditional surrender would "secure world peace on terms that would insure its permanence." Colonel House, the American representative meeting in Paris with Allied leaders, told Pershing that the question of a ceasefire was a political one that would be decided by the heads of government, and that they favored an armistice. The Paris conference met from October 29 to November 4 and decided on a coordinated Allied position that was set forth in a November 5 note from Secretary Lansing to the German government. The note stated that the Allies were willing to negotiate a peace settlement on the basis of the Fourteen Points subject to two reservations. First (addressing concerns raised by Great Britain), because the second of the Fourteen Points, freedom of the seas, "is open to various interpretations, some of which they could not accept," the Allies reserve "complete freedom on this subject" at the peace conference. Second, the tenth of the Points, that invaded territories must be "restored as well as evacuated and freed," means that "compensation will be made by Germany for all damage done to the civilian population of the Allies by the aggression of Germany by land, by sea, and from the air." Finally, the note advised that "Marshal Foch has been authorized . . . to receive properly accredited representatives of the German Government and to communicate to them the terms of an armistice."
A German delegation led by Matthias Erzberger, the leader of the Centre Party in the Reichstag, left German Army headquarters at Spa on November 7 and traveled by road and rail through French-controlled territory to a siding in the Forest of Compiegne on the River Aisne. On the morning of November 9 they met in his railroad dining car with Marshal Foch and other military representatives of the Allies, who gave them the Allies' armistice terms. Agreement was reached in the early morning hours of November 11. Among other things, the Germans agreed to evacuate France, Belgium, Luxembourg and Alsace-Lorraine, and to withdraw from and allow the Allies to occupy Germany as far as the west bank of the Rhine, including occupation of three Rhine bridgeheads. They also agreed to hand over thousands of heavy weapons, rifles, railway engines and rolling stock, to withdraw behind Germany’s 1914 frontiers in the East, and to make reparations for damage done in Belgium and France. Immediately after the agreement was signed at 5:00 a.m., Marshal Foch sent a message to Allied troops directing that “Hostilities will cease on the entire front November 11th at 11:00 French time.”
When Admiral Beatty, Commander-in-Chief of the British Grand Fleet, received word of the armistice that afternoon in the Firth of Forth, he issued the order "splice the main-brace," a traditional naval signal meaning an extra ration of rum for the sailors. American sailors were unable to take advantage of his order. Secretary of the Navy Daniels, a committed prohibitionist, has forbidden alcoholic beverages on all Navy ships.
On November 15 at 7:00 p.m., German Rear Admiral Hugo Meurer boarded H.M.S. Queen Elizabeth in the Firth of Forth and was escorted to Admiral Beatty's quarters. In a reflection of the political turmoil in Germany, Meurer informed Beatty that members of the Sailors' and Workers' Council were aboard his ship and insisted on being allowed to come aboard the Queen Elizabeth and participate in the discussions regarding surrender of the German fleet. Beatty replied that only Meurer and his staff would be allowed. In discussions the next morning, it was agreed that the German U-boat fleet would be surrendered to Commodore Reginald Tyrwhitt, commander of the Harwich Force, and that the surface ships would be brought to the Firth of Forth and surrendered to Admiral Beatty, who would then escort them to Scapa Flow where they would be interned. The first contingent of twenty U-boats arrived at Harwich on November 20. As of month's end a total of 115 have arrived and more are on the way or yet to be accounted for.
The surface ships of the High Seas Fleet arrived at the Firth of Forth on November 21, and the next day the first of them were under way for Scapa Flow. Destroyer flotillas went first, followed by light cruisers. The Dreadnoughts departed on November 24, and by November 27 seventy ships of the High Seas Fleet were riding at anchor in Scapa Flow.
The war continued beyond November 11 in Africa. German General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck has conducted a tenacious campaign for the last four years against British, Belgian, Portuguese, Indian and South African forces in German East Africa. When he learned of the armistice on November 14, he marched his troops to Abercorn, Northern Rhodesia, where he surrendered to the British on November 23.
King Albert and Queen Elisabeth of Belgium reentered Brussels on the morning of November 22, accompanied by Princes Leopold and Charles and Princess Marie Jose. The King and his family were on horseback, the Crown Prince dressed in khaki and his brother in a midshipman's uniform. Dense throngs of Belgians lined the way for miles, cheering lustily and throwing flowers in the path of the Royal Family as they rode through the festively decorated city from the Porte de Flanders to the Palais de la Nation. After listening to the Parliament's welcoming address, the Royal Family reviewed a parade of Allied troops, Belgian, French, British and American, that stretched for ten miles.
In the November 5 mid-term elections in the United States, voters rejected President Wilson’s plea for a Democratic Congress, sending Republican majorities to both the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate, where Democrats have enjoyed a 51-45 margin in the 65th Congress, will be controlled in the 66th by a 49-47 Republican majority. Senator Henry Cabot Lodge (Rep., Mass.), the unofficial leader of the Senate Republicans, will be Chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee, succeeding Gilbert Hitchcock (Dem., Neb.) who has held the position since the death of Senator William Stone (Dem., Mo.) in April. Republicans who captured Senate seats now held by Democrats include Governor Arthur Capper of Kansas, who defeated incumbent Democrat William H. Thompson, and Selden Spencer, who was elected to complete Senator Stone's term in Missouri. In Michigan, naval officer and former Secretary of the Navy Truman Newberry prevailed over industrialist Henry Ford, who ran for the Senate as a Democrat.
In the outgoing Congress, Republicans have one more member (212) than the Democrats (211) in the House of Representatives, but Democrats control the chamber with the support of three Progressives. (There are two other third-party members; one (Socialist) votes with the Democrats and the other (Prohibitionist) with the Republicans.) In the incoming Congress, Republicans will have a comfortable majority (240-192, plus one member each from the Prohibition and Farmer-Labor Parties). Champ Clark (Dem., Mo.), who has been Speaker since 1910, came close to winning his party's nomination for president in 1912 (he led the balloting for thirty ballots before losing the nomination to Woodrow Wilson on the forty-sixth). He will now lose the Speaker's gavel, and he retained his Congressional seat only by a narrow margin. Another remarkable reversal took place in Kansas where, in addition to the loss of Thompson's Senate seat, four of the five Democrats in the state's eight-member Congressional delegation lost their bids for reelection.
Bucking the nationwide trend, New Yorkers elected Democrat Alfred E. Smith as their new governor. Smith, who narrowly defeated the incumbent Republican Charles Whitman, served in the New York State Assembly from 1904 to 1915. He was Sheriff of New York County (Manhattan) from 1916 to 1917, when he was elected to his present position, President of the New York City Board of Aldermen. In this year's gubernatorial election, Governor Whitman's lead upstate was substantial, but insufficient to overcome the large majorities Smith rolled up in his home base of New York City.
The White House has released a brief statement announcing the names of the men who will represent the United States at the International Peace Conference scheduled to convene in France early next year. Although many advised against it, the President has decided to lead the delegation himself. Except for President Roosevelt's brief visit to the Panama Canal while it was under construction in 1906, it is unprecedented for a president to leave the country while in office. The other commissioners are Secretary of State Robert Lansing, Colonel Edward House, General Tasker Bliss, and the lone Republican, former Ambassador Henry White. Secretary of War Newton D. Baker will remain in the United States to address any concern that the absence of multiple cabinet members as well as the President himself might weaken the Executive Branch, particularly in light of William G. McAdoo's resignation this month as Secretary of the Treasury and Director General of Railroads. Republicans are dismayed that the Commission will not include a more prominent member of their party. They were not surprised that neither former President Roosevelt nor Senator Henry Cabot Lodge was chosen, since both have been vocal critics of President Wilson throughout the war. There are other Republicans, however, such as former President William Howard Taft, former presidential candidate Charles Evans Hughes, and former Senator and Secretary of State Elihu Root, who have generally supported the administration's war policies and any of whom would have been more acceptable to Republicans as a representative of their party. Another focus of criticism is the failure to include senators of either party, which may foreshadow future difficulties when a peace treaty is submitted to the Senate for ratification.
A crowded elevated train operated by the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company entered a tunnel on the Brighton Beach Line at Malbone Street in Flatbush during rush hour on the evening of November 1. Traveling at an excessive rate of speed, it was unable to negotiate a turn at the tunnel entrance. It left the tracks and crashed into the side of the tunnel, splintering its wooden cars and killing at least 93 passengers. The train was operated by a dispatcher who had little or no experience as a motorman and who had been pressed into service to compensate for a shortage of trained motormen due to a strike called by the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers. Nearby Ebbets Field was thrown open for treatment of the less seriously injured. The accident is by far the worst in the history of the New York City Transit System.
Books and Articles:
August Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography
Geoffrey C. Ward and Ken Burns, The Roosevelts: An Intimate History
*****
German Sailors in the Streets of Wilhelmshaven
Admiral Hipper's dispersal of the High Seas Fleet's Dreadnoughts after the aborted “death ride” against the Royal Navy failed to put an end to the unrest among the German sailors. A mutiny by sailors aboard Dreadnoughts remaining at Wilhelmshaven was put down and the mutineers arrested. When the ships transiting the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal arrived at Kiel with many of their sailors imprisoned, thousands of their fellow crewmen took to the streets to demonstrate support and demand the prisoners' release. Workers' and Sailors' Councils were formed and took control of the port on November 4. The mutiny spread to Wilhelmshaven, where more Workers' and Sailors' Councils were formed and thousands of armed sailors marched in the streets. As word of the uprising spread, demonstrations and strikes broke out in Hamburg, Bremen, and other major cities including Berlin. On November 9, when crewmen aboard Admiral Hipper's flagship lowered the admiral's flag and hoisted the red flag of revolution, the admiral quietly assembled his gear and went ashore. In Kiel, the Kaiser's brother Prince Henry of Prussia, the Commander-in-Chief of the German Navy, fled the city in an automobile flying a red flag.
Villa Giusti
By the end of October, with the proclamations of independence by the constituent parts of the Empire and Emperor Karl's announcement that he was relinquishing power to direct state affairs, the Austro-Hungarian army units in Italy were no longer a factor and the Empire itself had effectively ceased to exist. On November 3 Austria-Hungary's participation in the war came to an official end with an armistice signed at Villa Giusti, near Padua.
American Troops in Action
The military pressure on Germany continued. The public exchange of notes following Germany's appeal for an armistice in early October caused a marked reduction in German troop morale. The mutinies that had began in the fleet at Kiel quickly became a revolution, spreading to other Baltic ports, to the Rhineland, then to Berlin and other major cities. American troops pursuing the Meuse-Argonne offensive reached Sedan and prepared for a thrust toward Verdun, threatening to cut off vital lines of communication for the German Army. Germany's geographic position became more vulnerable with the exit of Austria-Hungary from the war.
Kaiser Wilhelm abdicated on the afternoon of November 9. The abdication was announced in Berlin by Chancellor Maximilian, who turned over the chancellorship to Frederick Ebert. That night the Kaiser boarded his train in the early morning hours. The train left Spa headed for Liege, but stopped at La Reid, just outside Spa, where Wilhelm and his party were transferred to automobiles for the thirty-mile drive to the Dutch border. At the border, they waited at the Dutch town of Eisjden while the government decided whether to grant asylum. Asylum was granted, and the court train was sent to carry Wilhelm and his entourage to Amerongen, where Count Godard Bentinck, a Dutch-English nobleman, had been persuaded to provide refuge for the former Kaiser.
The Kaiser Arrives in Holland
Kaiser Wilhelm abdicated on the afternoon of November 9. The abdication was announced in Berlin by Chancellor Maximilian, who turned over the chancellorship to Frederick Ebert. That night the Kaiser boarded his train in the early morning hours. The train left Spa headed for Liege, but stopped at La Reid, just outside Spa, where Wilhelm and his party were transferred to automobiles for the thirty-mile drive to the Dutch border. At the border, they waited at the Dutch town of Eisjden while the government decided whether to grant asylum. Asylum was granted, and the court train was sent to carry Wilhelm and his entourage to Amerongen, where Count Godard Bentinck, a Dutch-English nobleman, had been persuaded to provide refuge for the former Kaiser.
Allied Representatives at Compiegne
As the diplomatic notes between the United States and Germany approached agreement on the framework for an armistice, Allied military commanders met at Senlis and agreed on a recommendation to negotiate a ceasefire under conditions strong enough to prevent Germany from renewing hostilities. General Pershing took a different view, arguing that the German Army was in no condition to continue the war and that only unconditional surrender would "secure world peace on terms that would insure its permanence." Colonel House, the American representative meeting in Paris with Allied leaders, told Pershing that the question of a ceasefire was a political one that would be decided by the heads of government, and that they favored an armistice. The Paris conference met from October 29 to November 4 and decided on a coordinated Allied position that was set forth in a November 5 note from Secretary Lansing to the German government. The note stated that the Allies were willing to negotiate a peace settlement on the basis of the Fourteen Points subject to two reservations. First (addressing concerns raised by Great Britain), because the second of the Fourteen Points, freedom of the seas, "is open to various interpretations, some of which they could not accept," the Allies reserve "complete freedom on this subject" at the peace conference. Second, the tenth of the Points, that invaded territories must be "restored as well as evacuated and freed," means that "compensation will be made by Germany for all damage done to the civilian population of the Allies by the aggression of Germany by land, by sea, and from the air." Finally, the note advised that "Marshal Foch has been authorized . . . to receive properly accredited representatives of the German Government and to communicate to them the terms of an armistice."
A German delegation led by Matthias Erzberger, the leader of the Centre Party in the Reichstag, left German Army headquarters at Spa on November 7 and traveled by road and rail through French-controlled territory to a siding in the Forest of Compiegne on the River Aisne. On the morning of November 9 they met in his railroad dining car with Marshal Foch and other military representatives of the Allies, who gave them the Allies' armistice terms. Agreement was reached in the early morning hours of November 11. Among other things, the Germans agreed to evacuate France, Belgium, Luxembourg and Alsace-Lorraine, and to withdraw from and allow the Allies to occupy Germany as far as the west bank of the Rhine, including occupation of three Rhine bridgeheads. They also agreed to hand over thousands of heavy weapons, rifles, railway engines and rolling stock, to withdraw behind Germany’s 1914 frontiers in the East, and to make reparations for damage done in Belgium and France. Immediately after the agreement was signed at 5:00 a.m., Marshal Foch sent a message to Allied troops directing that “Hostilities will cease on the entire front November 11th at 11:00 French time.”
When Admiral Beatty, Commander-in-Chief of the British Grand Fleet, received word of the armistice that afternoon in the Firth of Forth, he issued the order "splice the main-brace," a traditional naval signal meaning an extra ration of rum for the sailors. American sailors were unable to take advantage of his order. Secretary of the Navy Daniels, a committed prohibitionist, has forbidden alcoholic beverages on all Navy ships.
German U-Boats at Harwich
On November 15 at 7:00 p.m., German Rear Admiral Hugo Meurer boarded H.M.S. Queen Elizabeth in the Firth of Forth and was escorted to Admiral Beatty's quarters. In a reflection of the political turmoil in Germany, Meurer informed Beatty that members of the Sailors' and Workers' Council were aboard his ship and insisted on being allowed to come aboard the Queen Elizabeth and participate in the discussions regarding surrender of the German fleet. Beatty replied that only Meurer and his staff would be allowed. In discussions the next morning, it was agreed that the German U-boat fleet would be surrendered to Commodore Reginald Tyrwhitt, commander of the Harwich Force, and that the surface ships would be brought to the Firth of Forth and surrendered to Admiral Beatty, who would then escort them to Scapa Flow where they would be interned. The first contingent of twenty U-boats arrived at Harwich on November 20. As of month's end a total of 115 have arrived and more are on the way or yet to be accounted for.
H.M.S. Cardiff Leading German Ships Into the Firth of Forth
The surface ships of the High Seas Fleet arrived at the Firth of Forth on November 21, and the next day the first of them were under way for Scapa Flow. Destroyer flotillas went first, followed by light cruisers. The Dreadnoughts departed on November 24, and by November 27 seventy ships of the High Seas Fleet were riding at anchor in Scapa Flow.
General Lettow-Vorbeck
The war continued beyond November 11 in Africa. German General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck has conducted a tenacious campaign for the last four years against British, Belgian, Portuguese, Indian and South African forces in German East Africa. When he learned of the armistice on November 14, he marched his troops to Abercorn, Northern Rhodesia, where he surrendered to the British on November 23.
Belgium's King Albert I
King Albert and Queen Elisabeth of Belgium reentered Brussels on the morning of November 22, accompanied by Princes Leopold and Charles and Princess Marie Jose. The King and his family were on horseback, the Crown Prince dressed in khaki and his brother in a midshipman's uniform. Dense throngs of Belgians lined the way for miles, cheering lustily and throwing flowers in the path of the Royal Family as they rode through the festively decorated city from the Porte de Flanders to the Palais de la Nation. After listening to the Parliament's welcoming address, the Royal Family reviewed a parade of Allied troops, Belgian, French, British and American, that stretched for ten miles.
Senator Lodge
In the November 5 mid-term elections in the United States, voters rejected President Wilson’s plea for a Democratic Congress, sending Republican majorities to both the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate, where Democrats have enjoyed a 51-45 margin in the 65th Congress, will be controlled in the 66th by a 49-47 Republican majority. Senator Henry Cabot Lodge (Rep., Mass.), the unofficial leader of the Senate Republicans, will be Chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee, succeeding Gilbert Hitchcock (Dem., Neb.) who has held the position since the death of Senator William Stone (Dem., Mo.) in April. Republicans who captured Senate seats now held by Democrats include Governor Arthur Capper of Kansas, who defeated incumbent Democrat William H. Thompson, and Selden Spencer, who was elected to complete Senator Stone's term in Missouri. In Michigan, naval officer and former Secretary of the Navy Truman Newberry prevailed over industrialist Henry Ford, who ran for the Senate as a Democrat.
In the outgoing Congress, Republicans have one more member (212) than the Democrats (211) in the House of Representatives, but Democrats control the chamber with the support of three Progressives. (There are two other third-party members; one (Socialist) votes with the Democrats and the other (Prohibitionist) with the Republicans.) In the incoming Congress, Republicans will have a comfortable majority (240-192, plus one member each from the Prohibition and Farmer-Labor Parties). Champ Clark (Dem., Mo.), who has been Speaker since 1910, came close to winning his party's nomination for president in 1912 (he led the balloting for thirty ballots before losing the nomination to Woodrow Wilson on the forty-sixth). He will now lose the Speaker's gavel, and he retained his Congressional seat only by a narrow margin. Another remarkable reversal took place in Kansas where, in addition to the loss of Thompson's Senate seat, four of the five Democrats in the state's eight-member Congressional delegation lost their bids for reelection.
Al Smith Casting His Ballot
U.S. Peace Commission (Front Row left to right: House, Lansing, Wilson, White, Bliss)
The White House has released a brief statement announcing the names of the men who will represent the United States at the International Peace Conference scheduled to convene in France early next year. Although many advised against it, the President has decided to lead the delegation himself. Except for President Roosevelt's brief visit to the Panama Canal while it was under construction in 1906, it is unprecedented for a president to leave the country while in office. The other commissioners are Secretary of State Robert Lansing, Colonel Edward House, General Tasker Bliss, and the lone Republican, former Ambassador Henry White. Secretary of War Newton D. Baker will remain in the United States to address any concern that the absence of multiple cabinet members as well as the President himself might weaken the Executive Branch, particularly in light of William G. McAdoo's resignation this month as Secretary of the Treasury and Director General of Railroads. Republicans are dismayed that the Commission will not include a more prominent member of their party. They were not surprised that neither former President Roosevelt nor Senator Henry Cabot Lodge was chosen, since both have been vocal critics of President Wilson throughout the war. There are other Republicans, however, such as former President William Howard Taft, former presidential candidate Charles Evans Hughes, and former Senator and Secretary of State Elihu Root, who have generally supported the administration's war policies and any of whom would have been more acceptable to Republicans as a representative of their party. Another focus of criticism is the failure to include senators of either party, which may foreshadow future difficulties when a peace treaty is submitted to the Senate for ratification.
The Wreckage at Malbone Street
A crowded elevated train operated by the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company entered a tunnel on the Brighton Beach Line at Malbone Street in Flatbush during rush hour on the evening of November 1. Traveling at an excessive rate of speed, it was unable to negotiate a turn at the tunnel entrance. It left the tracks and crashed into the side of the tunnel, splintering its wooden cars and killing at least 93 passengers. The train was operated by a dispatcher who had little or no experience as a motorman and who had been pressed into service to compensate for a shortage of trained motormen due to a strike called by the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers. Nearby Ebbets Field was thrown open for treatment of the less seriously injured. The accident is by far the worst in the history of the New York City Transit System.
*****
November 1918 – Selected Sources and Recommended Reading
Contemporary Periodicals:
Contemporary Periodicals:
American Review of Reviews, November and December 1918
New York
Times, November 1918
Books and Articles:
A. Scott Berg, Wilson
Britain at War Magazine, The Fifth Year of the Great War: 1918
Winston S. Churchill, The World Crisis 1911-1918
John Milton Cooper, Jr., Woodrow Wilson: A Biography
John Milton Cooper, Jr., The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt
Winston S. Churchill, The World Crisis 1911-1918
John Milton Cooper, Jr., Woodrow Wilson: A Biography
John Milton Cooper, Jr., The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt
John Dos Passos, Mr. Wilson's War
Kenneth S. Davis, FDR: The Beckoning of Destiny
David Fromkin, A Peace to End All Peace: Creating the Modern Middle East, 1914-1922
Martin Gilbert, Churchill: A Life
Martin Gilbert, The First World War: A Complete History
Martin Gilbert, The First World War: A Complete History
Martin Gilbert, A History of the Twentieth Century, Volume One: 1900-1933
Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill Volume IV: The Stricken World 1916-1922
Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill Volume IV: The Stricken World 1916-1922
Ann Hagedorn, Savage Peace, Hope and Fear in America, 1919
Godfrey Hodgson, Woodrow Wilson's Right Hand: The Life of Colonel Edward M. House
Roy Jenkins, Churchill: A Biography
John Keegan, The First World War
David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society
Ian Kershaw, To Hell and Back: Europe 1914-1949
John Keegan, The First World War
David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society
Ian Kershaw, To Hell and Back: Europe 1914-1949
Anthony Lewis, Make No Law, The Sullivan Case and the First Amendment
W. Bruce Lincoln, Passage Through Armageddon: The Russians In War and Revolution 1914-1918
Giles MacDonogh, The Last Kaiser: The Life of Wilhelm II
Robert K. Massie, Castles of Steel: Britain, Germany, and the Winning of the Great War at Sea
Robert K. Massie, Castles of Steel: Britain, Germany, and the Winning of the Great War at Sea
G.J. Meyer, A World Undone: The Story of the Great War, 1914 to 1918
G.J. Meyer, The World Remade: America in World War I
Ted Morgan, FDR: A Biography
William Mulligan, The Great War for Peace
William Mulligan, The Great War for Peace
Michael S. Neiberg, The Path to War: How the First World War Created Modern America
Patricia O'Toole, The Moralist: Woodrow Wilson and the World He Made
Edward J. Renehan, The Lion's Pride: Theodore Roosevelt and His Family in Peace and War
Jonathan Schneer, The Balfour Declaration: The Origins of the Arab-Israeli Conflict
David Stevenson, Cataclysm: The First World War As Political Tragedy
David Stevenson, With Our Backs to the Wall: Victory and Defeat in 1918
J. Lee Thompson, Never Call Retreat: Theodore Roosevelt and the Great War
Adam Tooze, The Deluge: The Great War, America and the Remaking of the Global Order, 1916-1931
Adam Tooze, The Deluge: The Great War, America and the Remaking of the Global Order, 1916-1931
Geoffrey C. Ward, A First Class Temperament: The Emergence of Franklin Roosevelt
The West Point Atlas of War: World War I
